El big data en los procesos políticos: hacia una democracia de la vigilancia
Resumo
Este artículo se centra en el análisis del uso de la industria del big data en la política. Se examina de forma pormenorizada el caso de la empresa Cambridge Analytica y se profundiza en los efectos del uso de la tecnología del big data en el referéndum de permanencia de Reino Unido en la Unión Europea y en las elecciones presidenciales estadounidenses de 2016. El objetivo es exponer los efectos nocivos que tiene el uso de la tecnología del big data en los procesos electorales y los daños que esta tecnología puede producir en los sistemas democráticos.Palavras-chave:
Big data, Democracia, Vigilancia, Cambridge Analytica, Microtargeting, PsicometríaReferências
Allcott, Hunt y Gentzkow, Matthew (2017), “Social media and fake news in the 2016 election”, en Journal of Economic Perspectives. 31.2: 211-236. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211.
Arceneaux, Kevin (2012), “Cognitive Biases and the Strength of Political Arguments”. American Journal of Political Science. 56.2: 271-285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00573.x.
Bennett, Colin J. (2015), “Trends in voter surveillance in western societies: Privacy intrusions and democratic implications”. Surveillance and Society. 13.3-4: 370-384. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v13i3/4.5373.
Berghel, Hal. (2018), “Malice Domestic: The Cambridge Analytica Dystopia”. Computer. 51.5: 84-89, https://doi.org/10.1109/MC.2018.2381135.
Bond, Robert M.; Fariss, Cristopher J.; Jones, Jason J.; Kramer, Adam D. I.; Marlow, Cameron; Settle, Jaime E. y Fowler, James H. (2012), “A 61-million-person experiment in social influence and political mobilization”. Nature. 489: 295298, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11421.
Cadwaladr, Carole (2017a), “Robert Mercer: the big data billionaire waging war on mainstream media”. The Guardian, Londres, 26 de febrero. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/feb/26/robert-mercer-breitbart-war-on-mediasteve-bannon-donald-trump-nigel-farage.
____ (2017b), “The great British Brexit robbery: how our democracy was hijacked”, en The Guardian, 17 de marzo. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/07/the-great-british-brexit-robbery-hijacked-democracy.
____ (2018a), “I made Steve Bannon’s psychological warfare tool’: meet the data war whistleblower” The Guardian, 17 de marzo. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/17/data-war-whistleblower-christopher-wylie-faceook-nixbannon-trump.
____ (2018b), “The Brexit whistleblower: ‘Did Vote Leave use me? Was I naive?’”, en The Guardian, 28 de marzo. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/mar/24/brexit-whistleblower-shahmir-sanni-interview-vote-leave-cambridgeanalytica.
Cadwaladr, Carole y Graham-Harrison, Ema (2018), “Revealed: 50 million Facebook profiles harvested for Cambridge Analytica in major data breach”. The Guardian, 17 de marzo, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/17/cambridge-analytica-facebook-influence-us-election.
Craker, Naomi y March, Evita (2016), “The dark side of Facebook®: The Dark Tetrad, negative social potency, and trolling behaviours”. Personality and Individual Differences. 102: 79-84, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.043.
D’Ancona, Matthew (2019), Posverdad: La nueva guerra en torno a la verdad y cómo combatirla. Madrid: Alianza.
Dutton, William H.; Reisdorf, Bianca C.; Dubois, Elizabeth y Blank, Grant (2017), “Search and Politics: The Uses and Impacts of Search in Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain, and the United States”, Quello Center Working Paper. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2960697
Gil, Elena (2016), Big data, privacidad y protección de datos. Madrid: Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado.
González de la Garza, Luis M. (2018), “La crisis de la democracia representativa. Nuevas relaciones políticas entre democracia, populismo virtual, poderes privados y tecnocracia en la era de la propaganda electoral cognitiva virtual, el microtargeting y el Big Data”. Revista de Derecho Político. 103: 257-302.https://doi.org/10.5944/rdp.103.2018.23203.
González, Roberto J. (2017), “Hacking the citizenry?: Personality profiling, ‘big data’and the election of Donald Trump”. Anthropology Today. 33.3: 9-12. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8322.12348.
Guess, Andrew; Nyhan, Brendan y Reifler, Jason (2018), “Selective exposure to misinformation: Evidence from the consumption of fake news during the 2016 US presidential campaign”. Exeter, 9 de enero.
Howard, Philip N.; Woolley, Samuel y Calo, Ryan (2018), “Algorithms, bots, and political communication in the US 2016 election: The challenge of automated political communication for election law and administration”. Journal of Information Technology and Politics. 15.2: 81-93. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2018.1448735.
Ipsos (2016), “The Perils of Perception and the EU”, Ipsos Mori, 9 de junio. https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/perils-perception-and-eu.
Kahneman, Daniel (2011), Thinking, fast and slow. Nueva York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux Inc.
Kaiser, Brittany (2019), Targeted: My Inside Story of Cambridge Analytica and How Trump, Brexit and Facebook Broke Democracy. Londres: HarperCollins.
Keane, John (2013), Democracy and media decadence. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Kosinski, Michal; Stillwell, David y Graepel, Thore (2013), “Private traits and attributes are predictable from digital records of human behavior”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110.15: 5802-5805. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1218772110.
Lakoff, George (2004), Don’t think of an Elephant. Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing.
López Jiménez, David (2011), “Las cookies como instrumento para la monitorización del usuario en la Red: la publicidad personalizada”. Revista de Ciencias Económicas. 29.2: 175-190.
Lyon, David (2018), The Culture of Surveillance: Watching as a Way of Life. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Marwick, Alice y Lewis, Rebecca (2017), Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online. New York: Data & Society Research Institute.
Mejía, Andrés Fernando (2020), “La libertad de expresión en jaque, el panóptico del Siglo XXI. Big Data como amenaza para la democracia: a propósito del caso Cambridge Analytica”. Revista de Filosofía, Derecho y Política. 32: 79-105. https://doi.org/10.20318/universitas.2020.5512.
Miguel de Bustos, Juan C. e Izquierdo-Castillo, Jessica. (2019). “¿Quién controlará la Comunicación? El impacto de los GAFAM sobre las industrias mediáticas en el entorno de la economía digital”. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social.74: 803-821. https://doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2019-1358.
Nave, Gedeón; Greenberg, David M.; Kosinski, Michal; Stillwell, David y Rentfrow, Jason (2018), “Musical Preferences Predict Personality: Evidence from Active Listening and Facebook Likes”. Pyschological Science. 29.7: 1145-1158. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618761659.
Nix, Alexander (2016), Cambridge Analytica - The Power of Big Data and Psychographics, Concordia Annual Summit, 19 y 20 de septiembre. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n8Dd5aVXLCc.
Orwell, George (2013).1984. Madrid: Penguin Random House.
Pauner Chulvi, Cristina. (2018). “Noticias falsas y libertad de expresión e información. El control de los contenidos informativos en la red”. Teoría y Realidad Constitucional. 41:297-318.
Polo Roca, Andoni (2020), “Sociedad de la información, sociedad digital, sociedad de control”. Inguruak. 68: 50-77.
Ravel, Ann (2018), “A New Kind of Voter Suppression in Modern Elections”. University of Memphis Law Review, 49.4: 1019-1064.
Rodríguez-Andrés, Roberto (2018), “Trump 2016: ¿presidente gracias a las redes sociales?”. Palabra Clave. 21.3: 831-859. https://doi.org/10.5294/pacla.2018.21.3.8.
Rosenberg, Matthew; Confessore, Nicholas y Cadwaladr, Carole (2018), “How Trump Consultants Exploited the Facebook Data of Millions”. The New York Times, 17 de marzo. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/17/us/politics/cambridgeanalytica-trump-campaign.html.
Schroepfer, Mike (2018), “An Update on Our Plans to Restrict Data Access on Facebook”. Facebook Newsroom, 4 de abril. https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2018/04/restricting-data-access/.
Stillwell, David y Kosinski, Michal (2012), “myPersonality project: Example of successful utilization of online social networks for large-scale social research”. International Conference on Mobile Systems (MobiSys), 25 de junio.
Suárez-Gonzalo, Sara (2018), “Tus likes ¿tu voto? Explotación masiva de datos personales y manipulación informativa en la campaña electoral de Donald Trump a la presidencia de EE.UU. 2016”. Quaderns del CAC. 21.44: 27-36.
____ (2019), “Big data, poder y libertad sobre el impacto social y político de la vigilancia masiva”. Tesis doctoral, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, http://www.tdx.cat/handle/10803/668235.
Sunstein, Cass R. (2001), Republic.com 2.0. Princeton: Princeton UP.
Vercelli, Ariel (2018), “La (des)protección de los datos personales: análisis del caso Facebook Inc.-Cambridge Analytica”. Simposio Argentino de Informática y Derecho (SID): 1-12.
Wang, Yilun y Kosinski, Michal (2018), “Deep neural networks are more accurate than humans at detecting sexual orientation from facial images”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 114.2: 246-257, https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000098.
Woolley, Samuel C., y Howard, Philip N. (2017), “Computational Propaganda Worldwide: Executive Summary”. Computational propaganda Research Project. Oxford: Oxford UP; pp. 1-15.
Wylie, Christopher (2019), Mindf*ck. Inside Cambridge Analytica’s Plot to Break the World. Londres: Profile Books.
Youyou, Wu; Kosinski, Michal y Stillwell, David (2015), “Computer-based personality judgments are more accurate than those made by humans”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112.4:1036-1040. https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.1418680112.
Zafra, Remedios (2017), “Redes y posverdad”, en En la era de la posverdad. Barcelona: Calambur; pp. 181-192.
Zuboff, Shoshana (2015), “Big other: Surveillance capitalism and the prospects of an information civilization”, en Journal of Information Technology. 30.1: 75-89.https://doi.org/10.1057/jit.2015.5.
